Philosophical Anthropology, Human Nature and the Digital Culture :: Philosophy Philosophical Papers

Philosophical Anthropology, Human Nature and the Digital Culture ABSTRACT: Within contemporary Western philosophy, the issues of human nature and our place in the cosmos have largely been ignored. In the resulting vacuum, the various subcultures that have grown up around the digital computer (the so-called "digital culture") have been actively defining and shaping popular conceptions of what it means to be human and the place of humanity in the digital era. Here one finds an implicit view of human nature that includes recurrent themes such as: an emphasis on mind as information independent of the physical body, the obsolescence of the human body, the elimination of human particularity, the malleability of human nature, and the logic and orderliness of the computer as a metaphor for the cosmos. This view of human nature shares important characteristics with Cartesian and Christian views of human nature long rejected by philosophers. A renewal of the philosophical anthropology movement — devoted to the issues of human nature and humanity's pl ace in the cosmos — permits us to see the inadequacy of the conception of human nature implicit in the digital culture. What am I that I am a human being? What is my place in the nature of things? At the close of the twentieth century, facing the dawn of a new millennium, the goal of paidea or philosophy educating humanity might best be achieved by philosophy recovering and reaffirming its interest in these two anthropological questions. In this essay I defend this claim through an analysis of the view of human nature implicit in the digital culture. For the past several decades, while philosophers have largely ignored anthropological issues, the sub-cultures swirling around computers and other digital technologies have been busy shaping and defining the way in which human nature will be conceived in the next millennium. More often than not, however, these views of human nature are produced in a philosophical and critical vacuum with little thought given to what we as human beings are and what we might become. Philosophers must address this vacuum by renewing their responsibility to speak to these iss ues, once again taking up the work of articulating a philosophical anthropology and providing the guidance on these issues that they once did. Reflection on our nature as human beings and our place in the cosmos has a long tradition in philosophy throughout the world and has surely been a central concern in the history of Western philosophy.

Robber Barons

Savannah Noss Period 1 3/2/13 APUSH Robber Barons, a term used in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s to describe a businessman who made an enormous amount of money, today we would call them billionaires essay writer price. It was not really the fact they made a myriad of wealth, it was more the way they made it. In all the cases the acquiring of wealth was done in what was considered a ruthless manor and unscrupulous ways. A robber baron was more interested in acquiring wealth than the safety of his employees, the amount of work hours performed in a week, or the amount of wage being paid for a days work.A great example of a robber baron would be Andrew Carnegie. The robber baron of the steel industry. He was instrumental in starting the 72 hour work week, paying out less than fair wages and having dangerous working conditions. Andrew Carnegie cornered the market on the steel industry and made the first high rise building. He was the only business in his field, therefore, he could set his prices and up his profits. The robber barons were known for their business tactics that would enable them to amass a wealth by monopolies.They would corner the market on a product or service and make it almost impossible to get, accept through them. One thing that robber barons of today and yesterday have in common is monopolies. If at all possible, the robber baron or billionaire as we call them today, would try to corner the entire market on their product or service, making it difficult for competition in their particular industry. A second robber baron of that time was John D. Rockefeller. The robber baron of the oil industry.Rockefeller monopolized the oil industry with Standard Oil Company. When Edwin Drake discovered oil in 1859, Rockefeller saw the future. He introduced techniques that completely reshaped the oil industry. He used all of his methods to reduce the price of oil to his consumers. His profits soared and his competitors were crushed one by one. Ro ckefeller forced smaller companies to surrender their stock to his control. Another great example of a robber baron is Thomas Edison. The robber baron of the electricity, the light bulb.In 1876, Edison opened a lab where hundreds of inventions were created, including the first ever electric light bulb and an improved version of Graham Bell’s telephone. His light bulb would come to serve as an important part of industrialization. Because of his invention, factories could stay open longer and produce more goods, His power station in New York City gave power to almost the entire city. Within ten years, almost all of the United States had power. Those men earned the title of being called a robber baron because of all the things they created that benefitted society. They were and are robber barons of their time and ours. Â  

The Poetry of Andrew Marvell and John Donne Essay - 951 Words

The Poetry of Andrew Marvell and John Donne The seventeenth century was an era of beautiful poetry. Two poets in particular, Andrew Marvell and John Donne, wrote carpe diem poetry full of vivid imagery and metaphysical conceits. Each conveyed the message of living for the now. This message can be clearly seen in the poems To his Coy Mistress by Marvell and Donne’s Flea. By using clever metaphors and meter, the poems not only are symbolic, but have almost a physical aspect to them. Though both poems take a similar approach, it is Marvell that writes the more persuasive one, reaching deep into the soul to win his object of affection. The main theme of Marvell’s poem is to seize the day. The speaker is trying to convince the†¦show more content†¦Images of deserts of vast eternity and virginity together instill the idea that it will be hard to prolong virginity, and it would be better to give in now. The poem is mostly written in iambic tetrameter, and flows softly and easily, much like a nursery rhyme. All the lines do not conform to the same format, however. While most lines contain eight syllables, some have more. Line 27 uses nine syllables, as does line 38. The switching of the meter keeps the reader on edge, and never lets the poem slip into a monotonous cycle. Not only does this technique keep the reader on its toes, but also symbolizes the spontaneous thought of the narrator, who lives very whimsically. Marvell uses spondaic meter as well as iambic. Shall sound, the last two words of line 26, are both stressed. Rough Strife, the last words of line 43, are also both stressed. The use of spondee helps to switch up the tempo of the poem and also fits the context of the lines. Lines 39-41 deal with time: Rather at once our time devour, Than languish in his slow-chapped power. Let us roll all our strength and all These lines actually produce the effect of slowing time down. Languish in his slow-chapped power rolls off of the tongue and takes effort to say. When spoken out-loud, the line reads almost as if it were in slow motion. Line 41 is almost entirely composed of stressed feet,Show MoreRelatedEmphasizing The True Meaning Of Poems By Andrew Marvell And John Donne s A Valediction : Forbidding Mourning1148 Words   |  5 PagesTrue Meaning of Poems† Around the seventeenth century the poets Andrew Marvell and John Donne expressed their feelings through poetry. Both John Donne, born in 1572 and Andrew Marvell, born in 1621 in England, are known for their ideas of metaphysical poetry. Metaphysical poetry is a persuasive poem that uses a conceit. It focuses on imagery, paradoxes, arguments, philosophy and religion. Andrew Marvell’s â€Å"To His Coy Mistress† and John Donne’s â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning,† focus on the themeRead More To His Coy Mistress Essay1227 Words   |  5 PagesTo His Coy Mistress Compare and Contrast â€Å"To His Coy Mistress† By John Donne. â€Å"To His Coy Mistress† and â€Å" To His Mistress Going to bed† are two poems that feature â€Å"carpe diem†; they are also written by two of the most well known metaphysical poets. Andrew Marvell, the author of â€Å"To His Coy Mistress† and John Donne, the writer of â€Å"To His Mistress Going To Bed†. Both poems were written through the 16th and 17th Century, where love and sex were describe as two different things. 16th and 17th Read MoreMetaphysical Poetry By John Donne1590 Words   |  7 PagesAwaga Grade 11 B Metaphysical Poetry According to English language, when metaphysical is divided into two words ‘meta’ is defined as after and physical remains as it is. Thus metaphysical means after the physical. The definition above was according to English language, however according to poetry is†¦. Many poets got involved in metaphysical poetry like: Samuel Johnson who wrote his book which is known as ‘’Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets’’, Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvel, Richard Crashaw, GeorgeRead MoreThe Metaphysical And Victorian Concept Of Love Essay1308 Words   |  6 Pagesin Porphyria s Lover by Robert Browning with the playful love in nature in To His Coy Mistress by Andrew Marvell. Love has multiple definitions and it has so far remained among the most complex subject that require a single particular definition to define its meaning. Plato once said At the touch of love everyone becomes a poet and that s why may be we have so many diverse poetry on the s ubject of love with so many different definitions of love that are available. Shakespeare wrote inRead More The Sun Rising by John Donne and To His Coy Mistress by Andrew Marvell2276 Words   |  10 PagesThe Sun Rising by John Donne and To His Coy Mistress by Andrew Marvell John Donne and Andrew Marvell were two of the most outstanding of the English Metaphysical poets of their era. In both of the poems to which this piece of extended writing refers, highly intellectual and complex imagery is used to make us discover the hidden meanings behind their unconventional love poetry. Both poems were written at a similar period, and though both authors were similar in ways, thereRead MoreMetaphysical Poems792 Words   |  4 PagesMetaphysical Poets John Donne and Andrew Marvell were considered metaphysical poets based on their use of conceit and wit in depicting similar situations through different metaphors. They would use original analogies to create fitting and insightful comparisons, usually to persuade. John Donne and Andrew Marvell have been called metaphysical poets. This is a,† name given to a group of English lyric poets of the 17th century† (Metaphysical poets)† The term metaphysical poets came to be used almostRead MoreThe Flea, By Andrew Marvell996 Words   |  4 PagesJohn Donne s, The Flea, and Andrew Marvell’s To His Coy Mistress are persuasive poem in which the speaker is attempting to establish a sexual union with his significant other. These poems is spoken by a male lover to his female beloved as an attempt to convince her to sleep with him. John Donne and Marvell brings out and shapes this meaning through his collective use of conceit, rhythm, and rhyme scheme. The basic theme of the poems is the speaker’s need to turn his â€Å"coy mistress† into a â€Å"willingRead MoreComparing To his Coy Mistress by Andrew Marvell and To his Mistress Going to Bed by John Donne1511 Words   |  7 PagesMistress by Andrew Marvell and To hi s Mistress Going to Bed by John Donne In recent times I have compared and contrasted two pieces of love poetry, both of which are exceptionally lyrical and full of intellectual language that bring the poems alive with elaborated metaphors that compare dissimilar things, as they Inare equally, yet somehow individually both metaphysical poems. The first of these poems that I comprehended was To his Coy Mistress; (written by Andrew MarvellRead MoreComparison of How John Donne and Andrew Marvell Present Death in Poems To His Coy Mistress and Holy Sonnet X1163 Words   |  5 PagesComparison of How John Donne and Andrew Marvell Present Death in Poems To His Coy Mistress and Holy Sonnet X In the poems To His Coy Mistress and Holy Sonnet X the idea of death plays a strong part in the overall messages of the poems. Both poets use effective but very different methods in order to put forward their views and/or to make a point about society. ====================================================================== John Donnes poem Holy Sonnet X is veryRead MoreCharacteristics of Metaphysical Poetry876 Words   |  4 PagesWhat is a metaphysical poem? Metaphysical poetry is concerned with the whole experience of man, but the intelligence, learning and seriousness of the poets means that the poetry is about the profound areas of experience especially - about love, romantic and sensual; about man s relationship with God - the eternal perspective, and, to a less extent, about pleasure, learning and art. Metaphysical poems are lyric poems. They are brief but intense meditations, characterized by striking use of wit

8 Tips to Prepare for Your Comprehensive Examination

Virtually all master’s and doctoral programs require graduate students to take comprehensive exams. Such exams are exactly that: Comprehensive, intended to cover the entire field of study. It’s a big deal and your performance on your masters or doctoral comprehensive exam can make or break your graduate school career. Learning all there is to know about your field is daunting, but dont let it overwhelm you. Be systematic in your preparations and follow these tips to get your studying underway and prepare for your comprehensive exams. Locate Old Exams Students often do not take individualized exams. This is especially true for master’s comps. Comprehensive exams are often administered to groups of students. In these cases, departments usually have a stack of old exams. Take advantage of these exams. Sure you likely will not see the same questions, but the exams can provide info about the kinds of questions to expect and the base of literature to know. Sometimes, however, comprehensive exams are tailored to each student. This is particularly true for doctoral comps. In this case, the student and advisor or sometimes a comprehensive examination committee work together to identify the range of topics covered in the exam. Consult With Experienced Students More experienced graduate students have a lot to offer.  Look to students who have successfully completed their comps. Ask questions like: How are comps structured? How did they prepare? What they would do differently, and how confident did they feel on exam day? Of course, also ask about the content of the test. Consult With Professors Usually, one or more faculty members will sit down with students and talk about the test and what to expect. Sometimes this is in a group setting. Otherwise, ask your mentor or a trusted faculty member. Be prepared with specific questions, such as how important is understanding and citing classic research as compared with current work? How is the exam organized? Ask for suggestions on how to prepare. Gather Your Study Materials Gather classic literature. Conduct literature searches to gather the newest most important pieces of research. Be careful because its easy to become consumed and overwhelmed with this part. You won’t be able to download and read everything. Make choices. Think About What You’re Reading It’s easy to get swept away with the task of reading, taking notes, and memorizing oodles of articles. Dont forget that you will be asked to reason about these readings, construct arguments, and discuss the material at a professional level. Stop and think about what youre reading. Identify themes in the literature, how particular lines of thinking evolved and shifted, and historical trends. Keep the big picture in mind and think about every article or chapter - what is its place in the field at large? Consider Your Situation What are the challenges you face in preparing to take the comps? Locating and reading study materials, managing your time, keeping productive, and learning how to discuss the interrelations of theory and research are all part of studying for comps. Do you have a family? Roommate? Do you have the space to spread out? A quiet place to work? Think about all the challenges you face and then devise solutions. What specific action will you take to combat each challenge? Manage Your Study Time Recognize that your time is limited. Many students, especially at the doctoral level, carve out time that they devote exclusively to studying - no working, no teaching, no coursework. Some take a month, others a summer or longer. You need to decide what to study and how much time to devote to each topic. Its likely that you have a better grasp of some topics than others, so distribute your study time accordingly. Devise a schedule and make a concerted effort to determine how you will fit in all of your studying.  Each week set goals. Each day should have a to-do list. Follow it. You will find that some topics take less time and others more time. Adjust your schedule and plans accordingly. Seek Support Remember that youre not alone in preparing for comps. Work with other students. Share resources and advice. Simply hang out and talk about how you’re approaching the task and help each other manage the stress. Consider creating a study group, set group goals, and then report your progress to your group. Even if no other students are preparing to take comps, spend time with other students. Reading and studying in isolation can lead to loneliness, which certainly isnt good for your morale and motivation.

The Slew of Death Caused by Romeo in Romeo and Juliet by...

In William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, many characters meet their tragic end as a result of a plethora of factors, from old rivalries to new love. It is a tragic story of two lovers, destined to complete each other, but also to end a bitter feud through their deaths (Prologue.3-6). However, if the blame had to be ascribed to one person in particular, that person would be Romeo Montague. Throughout the play, Shakespeare showcases Romeo’s irrationality and poor decision making, leading to the gruesome deaths of his loved ones. Romeo is most to blame for the tragic slew of deaths because he is oblivious, quick to act, and too urgent in his relationship. Throughout the play, Romeo repeatedly ignores what is completely obvious. In the beginning, he refuses to accept that there are more girls in the world than just Rosaline. This is showcased when Benvolio tells him about how there are going to be many girls at the Capulet party, but Romeo ignores him (I.ii.4-9). This beh avior shows that he is blinded by love, impairing his logic. This behavior escalates when he fails to see how dangerous it might be to be involved with a Capulet as a Montague, brought front and center when he goes to Juliet’s balcony knowing that she is a Capulet. If Romeo had chosen the obvious choice of staying away, then their relationship would have ended right there and then, saving both Juliet’s life as well as his own. Romeo’s ignorance climaxes in his final moments, when he finds Juliet’s supposedlyShow MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet898 Words   |  4 PagesRomeo and Juliet Romeo and Juliet is a play written by William Shakespeare in the 14th century. It is a beautiful tragedy about two star-crossed lovers and their journey together despite their feuding families’ protests. As a result of said feud, both Romeo and Juliet ended their lives, as a result of thinking that the other was dead. If we take this kind of situation and put it into the modern world, someone would be blamed for these tragic deaths. The only question is who. Their parents are toRead MoreWho is Responsible for the Tragic Deaths of Romeo and Juliet Essay1139 Words   |  5 PagesWho is Responsible for the Tragic Deaths of Romeo and Juliet Romeo and Juliet, a tragedy written by William Shakespeare in the 16th Century all about two strong hearted teenagers in the city of Verona in Italy who fall in love with each other as star crossed lovers. The two young teenagers of feuding families were destined to fall in love, however many problems occur to the extent of suicide, that affect their relationship, one of the main factors is the feud between Read MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1308 Words   |  6 Pagesof Romeo and Juliet, Benvolio said, â€Å"Alas, that love, so gentle in his view,/ Should be so tyrannous and rough in proof!†(1.1.165-166) Benvolio suggests that love seems nice, peaceful, and innocent, but in reality it can be disastrous and even deadly. A world famous author and poet by the name of William Shakespeare wrote The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet in 1597. Romeo and Juliet is known as one of the best love stories in history. There are many significant characters in The Tragedy of Romeo andRead MoreEssay on Dramatic Effects in Romeo and Juliet III.12285 Words   |  10 PagesRomeo and Juliet is a sixteenth-century play written by William Shakespeare. Amongst the most renowned of Shakespeares plays, Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy that focuses on the fated relationship of two star-crossed lovers. The play focuses on themes of love and hate, mostly concerning the feud between the two opposing families, the Montagues and the Capulets. This play came at a time when such social events like courting were not just accepted, but expected. Witchcraft and fate were also stronglyRead MoreRomeo and Juliets Tragic Flaws2929 Words   |  12 PagesShakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet ends in tragedy, because of some of Romeo and Juliet’s faults. Romeo and Juliet obviously rush into things. They do not listen to the advice of Friar Lawrence and end up paying the ultimate price. They also ignore the obvious factors that prohibit Romeo and Juliet from ever being happy together. Romeo and Juliet are also very immature and are groomed for social disaster. Romeo and Juliet are also not in love, but in lust. The combination of impatience, immaturity, andRead MoreAct 3 Scene I of William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet Essay2142 Words   |  9 PagesShakespeares Romeo and Juliet Before Act 3 scene i we know that there are two feuding families, the Capulets and the Montagues. The audience has been told at the start that to resolve this dispute their children, two innocent lovers, must die. The Prince had explicitly told the family that if there is another brawl their ‘lives shall pay the forfeit of the peace’. Romeo a Montague went unwelcome to the Capulets’ ball. Tybalt, a nephew of old Capulet noticed Romeo. He wasRead MoreThe Irrationality of the Lovers in Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet1761 Words   |  8 PagesIn the play Romeo and Juliet ,by Shakespeare we are constantly bombarded with different meanings of words, contrasts, and characters who are quite irrational. They wish things upon themselves, and when they happen, are astonished. This piece of literature is filled with situations where the character intends one thing to happen, but his results are completely different. Throughout the following paragraphs the reader is to decide if the examples shown display opposite results from the original planRead MoreEssay on Family Trust in William Shakespeares Plays2426 Words   |  10 Pagesis not always possible. Sometimes family members hurt each other and even, in worst-case scenarios, kill each other over issues as important as protecting another or as petty as fighting over a boy. In Shakespeare’s Othello, Macbeth, Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Ki ng Lear, and The Winter’s Tale, if family members operate with selfish motives, they hurt the hero and contribute to his fall; but if the family supports each other with only love, the hero can redeem himself from his fall and even succeedRead More Shakespeare’s Use of Ovids Metamorphoses and Virgils Aeneid as Basis for The Tempest3769 Words   |  16 PagesShakespeare’s Use of Ovids Metamorphoses and Virgils Aeneid as Basis for The Tempest William Shakespeare, as did most writers of his time, took the basis for the stories he wrote from other texts. He would use source poems or mythology in order to write his own works. Romeo and Juliet, for example, can be compared to the tragedy of Pyramus and Thisby. Plays such as Richard III and Julius Caesar are artistic accounts of historic events. The Tempest, however, is commonly perceived as an

Cause-Effect Free Essays

A couple of weeks ago, my grandmother passed away. I was at my lowest point in my life. I was extremely sad and depressed. We will write a custom essay sample on Cause-Effect or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, I knew I could always rely on Salsa. I would call her In the middle of the night and she was there to pick up my phone calls. When I needed someone to express my emotions to, she was there. She always encouraged me to look on the bright side of things. She always ensured me that better days were going to come because death is a part of life that we simply have to deal with. She helped me cope and deal with the loss of my grandmother. We loud do activities such as working out and cooking together to keep my mind off the death of my grandmother. Salsa comforted me by having a shoulder to cry on when I didn’t have anyone else. She was the only person that could understand my feelings and what I was going through. Salsa also supported me emotionally. There were times when I had difficulties in school and I felt like giving up. However, she encouraged me keep pushing harder to accomplish my goals. She helped me understand that there are going to be struggles that we face In this world but we cannot give up and run from our problems. She supported me by Glenn me great advice and pushing me to do my best with my academics. Her words of encouragement boosted my self-esteem to accomplish my goals. I am extremely grateful to have someone like Salsa in my life. She has always been there for me when others did not understand. She is honestly one of the sweetest people I have met in my life. Salsa helps me stay grounded and humble. She supports me emotionally by always being there for me in times of difficulty, making me laugh when I am sad and encouraging me to try my best with everything. Her physically and emotional support has helped me get through the most hardest times In life. I know I can always count on her to cheer me up. By Handmaiden Cheddar Suffix Abdul Caked Two years ago, I met a beautiful young girl name Salsa. I met her at a family Salsa. I would call her in the middle of the night and she was there to pick up my that we face in this world but we cannot give up and run from our problems. She supported me by giving me great advice and pushing me to do my best with my times in life. I know I can always count on her to cheer me up. How to cite Cause-Effect, Papers

Coping with Traumatic Life Events free essay sample

â€Å"All this time, I thought I was learning to live, when all along, I was learning to die.† So said Leonardo da Vinci. We read his words, smile and think to ourselves that they don’t really apply to us. Why so? Most Westerners run from even the talk of death. True, we cry at movies like Terms of Endearment when dying is unrealistically romanticized; we weep at funerals, cheer when the bad guys die on television, and shudder at newspaper accounts of catastrophes, though we soon get over it. But as for the thought of our own death, we avoid discussing it at all cost. We deny death because we are afraid of it. This fear is so deeply ingrained that it keeps us from being fully in the present. It takes attention to hold off death. We plan. We become anxious. We busy ourselves so we do not have to think about it. We will write a custom essay sample on Coping with Traumatic Life Events or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page And we lose contact with present time and present place where wonder and joyand not death—exist.   Introduction Mourning is a complex process in which the bereaved separate and detach themselves from loved ones who have died and replace them with new relationships. If the work of grieving is handled well, new ties can afford equivalent or greater satisfaction to needs formerly satisfied by lost relationships. On the other hand, if restitutive relationships are not established or are incapable of equivalent satisfaction, the process of mourning becomes diverted, remaining incomplete and in danger of becoming dysfunctional. Mourning is a stressful process. It takes its toll psychologically as well as physiologically. Dysfunctional grief is the root if an astonishingly high proportion of emotional, behavioral, addictive and psychosomatic disorders. The literature of psychotherapy is rich with case materials relating symptomatology to dysfunctional grief. In recent years, an increasing body of data has accumulated relating significant increases in the incidence of physical illness and death to populations experiencing the loss of spouse or other central family members. Parkes, Bereavement: Studies of Grief in Adult Life (1973), summarizes the results of a number of studies. He concludes that mourning is a powerful stressor, subjugating body and psyche to crushing pressures, which frequently cause mental and physical illness. A survey of studies on the psychological effects of childhood bereavement is found in Chapter 9 of Furman’s (1974) volume on childhood bereavement. These studies strongly suggest that childhood bereavement, even more than adult bereavement, can be a significant factor in the development of various forms of mental illness and adult maladjustment. Counseling the bereaved Counseling can shorten the period of unresolved grief, and it can increase the probability of establishing satisfactory replacement relationships. This help can be useful in preventing and minimizing the pathological outcome of bereavement. Those interested in primary prevention of mental illness see bereavement as a crucial area requiring further research and new services. This paper takes a look at this event in one’s life and the different ways by which academic and clinical psychologists identify ways of coping that facilitates coping during these traumatic events. This hopes to guide professionals in helping the bereaved by establishing theoretical and clinical benchmarks for assessing the individual situation. The bereavement counseling task is complex and emotionally draining. The novice counselor will find it difficult to translate theoretical formulations into successful clinical work without supervision. Authors Wortman and Cohen Silver pose the question on whether certain beliefs or assumptions about how people should react to the loss of a loved one that is prevalent to Western Cultures. Thus, to determine whether such assumptions exist, they then review some theoretical modes of reactions to loss such as Freud and Bowlby’s. Apparently, it was revealed that there are strong assumptions about the grieving process in Western society. The study also demonstrates that if counseling fore bereaved individuals is based on these erroneous assumptions, then it may ultimately prove unhelpful. Understanding bereavement Early in his clinical work with healthy and dysfunctional grief, the author concluded that a theoretical map to guide the clinician through the labyrinths of normal grief is a necessity. Without a baseline description of normal grief, it is difficult to distinguish factors that lead to pathology. The writings of Lindemann (1944), Glick, Weiss and Parkes (1974), and Parkes (1973), in particular, extended the author’s thinking about the phenomena of normal bereavement. The five-stage theory of a patient’s response to terminal illness, developed by Kubler-Ross (1969), made available a theoretical model for describing the bereavement process.